AFRICA AND WESTERN EUROPE IN SUSTAINABLE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT THEORY

"TOURISM IN INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS"

LECTURE: Drs. Usmar Salam MIS

DHIAR NUGRAHA
07/254403/sp/22308

AFRICA AND WESTERN EUROPE IN SUSTAINABLE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT THEORY

Abstract

The concept of sustainable tourism was introduced in response to the publication of the Bruntland Report (1990), and the ensuing debate on sustainable development, which stated thus:

“ Sustainable tourism development can be thought of as meeting the needs of present tourist and host regions while protecting and enhancing opportunity for the future. … Sustainable tourism development is envisaged as leading to management of all resources in such a way that we can fulfil economic, social and aesthetic needs

while maintaining cultural integrity, essential ecological processes, biological diversity and life support systems”.

This definition clearly calls upon all involved to ensure that in the long term there is need to strike a balance between a development strategy which uses tourism as a motor of economic growth and one which emphasises the preservation of the environmental resource base.

Interesting to compare two big region which have many differences in the scope of sustainable tourism development concept. Africa the black continent, have many kinds of tourism from comfort-based tourism to adventure-oriented tourism. And western Europe with the image of civilization tourism, from roman empire to shopping malls. The differences made them have different strategy to face the global era where every region become competitive on tourism.

Introduction

Tourism is one of the largest industries in the world (World Tourism Organization [WTO], 1998), and it continues to grow. From 1950 through 1998 international tourist arrivals have increased 25 fold, whereas the corresponding receipts from tourists have increased 211 fold worldwide. On the other hand, employment in tourism worldwide has shown a corresponding increase. In addition to the dramatic increase in international tourist arrivals, per capita expenditures of these tourists have also increased. With rising income levels, more leisure time, increases in life expectancy, advances in technology, and the shrinking of travel time, international tourism is still expected to continue to grow in the current millennium.

the tourism environment is becoming increasingly competitive, dynamic and impacted by various global issues. Key factors such as changing consumer preferences, the increasing involvement of host communities, safety and health concerns, globalisation of the airline industry, technological innovation and environmental pressures are changing the face of international tourism and by implication are posing new challenges to tourism destinations in Africa. Against this background, this article focuses on the changing shape and direction of international tourism; Africa’s current and future tourism position and potential; the key role of tourism in addressing Africa’s key challenges, including poverty alleviation; and then proposes a sustainable destination competitiveness model that can be used as a frame of reference to enhance Africa’s tourism competitiveness.

Analyses from the World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC), World Tourism Organisation (WTO), national governments and major industry operators all conclude that the growth in domestic and international tourism in recent decades will continue up to, and well beyond the year 2010. All indications are that tourism will play an increasingly important economic and political role on the world stage. The WTO forecasts that the growth in international tourist arrivals to 2005 will be approximately four per cent per annum. WTTC's research estimates that this growth in demand for tourism will generate a total output of US$7,1 trillion and create 130 million new jobs in the international travel and tourism industry by 2006 (WTTC 1996).

There is no doubt that tourism will continue to play a major role in the world economy. We must have faith that properly planned tourism will be a positive factor in national development; creating challenging employment and distributing wealth to all sectors of society. It will have flow-through effects and will serve as a catalyst for growth in other sectors such as agriculture, transportation and construction

Our view on the role of tourism in regional economic development is quite an optimistic one, and is based on the World Tourism Organization (WTO) forecasts and trends on international tourism up to 2020. While international tourist arrivals are reported to have increased from approximately 25 million in 1950 to 625 million in 1998, worldwide, which is an increase of 2,500 percent, a WTO1 survey envisions that:

· International tourism arrivals worldwide by 2020 will be 1.6 billion, with spending in excess of 2 trillion U.S. dollars;

· The percentage of the traveling population involved in international travel will increase from 3.5% in 1998 to 7% by 2020;

· Europe will continue to be the largest international tourism region, although by 2020 its market share will have been eroded significantly;

· By 2020 China will become the largest receiver of international tourists;

· Among the various international tourism market segments, eco-tourism, cultural tourism, theme-based tourism, adventure tourism, and the cruise tourism will grow in importance; and

· Tourism as a sector will grow at a faster rate than all other sectors in the global economy.

The WTO’s 2020 Vision

In 1997, the World Tourism Organisation (WTO) published a forecast of tourism in the year 2020 based on a survey conducted with national tourist authorities from 85 countries and a Delphi survey of 50 experts. The report, Tourism 2020 Vision (WTO 1999), which was updated in 1999 to include the economic crisis in Asia, presents predictions about the development of the sector and the market, arrivals and receipt trends worldwide and discusses factors shaping tourism in the twenty-first century.

Some of the key trends outlined in the report that could direct the future shape and direction of tourism include:

• International tourist arrivals are forecast to top one billion in 2010 and reach close to 1,6 billion in 2020. These volumes represent an overall average annual growth rate of 4,1 per cent between 1995 and 2020.

• Europe will remain the largest receiving region, though its below global average rate of increase between 1995-2020 (3,5 per cent p.a.) will result in a decline in market share from 55 per cent to 47 per cent. East Asia and the Pacific, increasing at 6,5 percent p.a., will pass the Americas (up 3,1 per cent p.a.) as the second largest receiving region, holding a 26 per cent market share in 2020 as against 15 per cent by the Americas. The respective shares of Africa, the Middle East and South Asia will all record some increase to four per cent, two per cent and one per cent respectively by 2020.

• One of the principal features of the expansion of international tourism over the 25 year period is the rise in the long-haul share of arrivals, with tourists traveling greater distances. By 2020, the global intraregional long-haul split will be 76:24 with average annual growth rates between 1995-2020 of 3,8 per cent and 5,4 per cent respectively.

• Europe will remain the world’s largest generating region, being responsible for almost one half of tourist arrivals worldwide despite its modest annual growth rate between 1995-2020 (3,5 per cent p.a.). International arrivals from East Asia and the Pacific will grow slowly until the year 2000, but during the first decade of the new millennium the pent up demand for travel will ensure that the region becomes the second largest for outbound travel (up 6,5 per cent per annum over the period 1995-2020) forcing the Americas (up 3,1 per cent p.a.) into third place. Africa, the Middle East and South Asia will each show above average growth rates (WTO 1999).

AFRIKA

Africa is big continent, but why I made it to be one region because Africa have strong regionalism. They have same background as developing country, same condition poor and poverty. That is why i called they African and they need some strategy to attract more tourist from around the world and make some money to their people.

The future tourism picture in Africa

The Tourism 2020 Vision study forecasts a continued above global average rate of growth in international tourist arrivals in the African continent with an average annual rise between 1995 and 2020 of 5,5 per cent. By 2020, the volume of international tourist arrivals in Africa will reach 77 million, almost four times the 20 million recorded in 1995.

Analysis of sub-regional prospects shows that Southern Africa (at 7,5 per cent p.a. growth 1995-2020) will continue to be the leader, followed by Eastern Africa (5,2 per cent p.a.), though all sub-regions will share in the growth to a significant extent. By 2001 Southern Africa is said to reach 10 million arrivals, five times the level of 1990.

Intraregional travel within Africa will account for the largest number of arrivals in the region in 2020 (50 million) with Southern and Eastern Africa showing the strongest

growth rates.

East Asia and the Pacific show the strongest growth of international tourist arrivals to the Africa region over the period 1995-2020 (6,8 per cent p.a.), albeit from a small base. The strongest growth will be from the Southeast Asian countries.

Arrivals from the Americas (5,1 per cent p.a.) will grow faster than those from Europe (4,4 per cent p.a.), but European arrivals will account for considerably more arrivals in the region (20 million in 2020). Growth in arrivals from Central/Eastern Europe and East Mediterranean Europe will be strongest.

Tourism’s contribution to GDP in Southern Africa is expected to increase from 7,1 per cent in 1999 to 8,1 per cent in 2010. It is also projected that by 2010, 42 per cent of Southern Africa’s business will be derived from international tourism, 33 per cent from intra-regional personal tourism and 10 per cent from intra-regional business.

TOURISM AS A CATALYST FOR POVERTY ALLEVIATION IN AFRICA

The reduction of poverty is without a doubt one of the most compelling challenges facing Africa. A key question that needs to be asked regarding Africa is whether the potential power of the tourism industry can be effectively harnessed in the fight against poverty. Available evidence provides a positive answer. According to De Villiers (2002) annual growth of tourist arrivals in LDCs over the last 10 years has been higher than the world average. Demonstrating the existence of a competitive advantage in their favour, the growth of international tourism receipts in LDCs was significant during the 1990s. LDCs receipts more than doubled between 1992 and 1998. Tourism has become the primary source of foreign exchange earnings in 49 LDCs. For many of these countries, tourism has become the major - or one of the major–contributors to their GDP. Cross-country evidence demonstrates that tourism in LDCs is a labour-intensive activity offering small-scale opportunities. It, therefore, has the capacity to create jobs– jobs for the poor, jobs for women and young people, jobs in the indigenous communities.

EUROPE

Tourism in Europe is serviced by about two million companies, especially SMEs that contribute 5% both to the GNP and workforce (COM (2001) 665, p. 4). Europe, therefore, plays a very important role in world tourism, a role which is expected to rise even more than the average economy, even though, with the new EU countries, the economic percentage increase will drop; indeed, whilst in 1995.

European tourism accounted for 60% of foreign tourism, by 2020 this percentage is expected to fall to 46%. This is supported by the fact that there appears to be a levelling off of hitherto popular European destinations in favour of emerging countries. In other words, during the ten year period from 1990 to 2000, although world tourism rose by 4.2%, European tourism increased by only 3.4%.

Even more evident is the situation in the last three years where Europe has seen an increase of 2.2% against an increase of only 1% in the rest of the world; this is as a consequence of recent political crises and the rise in terrorism. Within Europe itself, there are significant regional discrepancies. Hidden within the aforementioned figure of 2.2%, resides a drop of 2.6% in tourism in western Europe, whilst, during the same period, East Central Europe has seen a rise of 9.6% and Southern Europe, 4.4%. This highlights the importance of the new EU entrants who have an indisputable wealth of natural and historical assets to offer.

In the 60s, people began adopting a more dedicated and systematic approach to the question of tourism. This approach, which from a programming point of view is now called strategic, was able to draw from a range of disciplines which now makes it a very precious organisation and planning tool. Over the last 30 years, one has come to understand just how important and valuable planning a project is, because it is possibly only through planning that, what the former Secretary General of the WTO called: “Squeezed orange effect”, or the effect of uncontrolled growth, that leads to crisis, (Enriques Savignac’s speach, 1992) can be avoided.

A system of observation and control is needed to prevent, reduce and assess the pressure of speculation by implementing long or medium term plans, through progressive and controlled programming (rolling planning system), which leaves open the option for continued updating and review (retroactive correction system). Environmental programming is indispensable for tackling environmental quality at the onset and thus guarantee that the tourist can indulge in their surroundings. It also promotes sustainable development of the area ensuring that the minimum requirement, to guarantee a sustainable environment strategy, is attained.

Environmental programming can be carried out at different levels; through urban development, improvement of the historical centre or through Territorial Landscape Plans. The ideal plan should go hand in hand with other socio-economic activities at every level. This ensures the best use of tourist resources at a minimum social, economic and environmental cost.

In the 1st Action Plan for Tourism, European took into consideration environmental problems, and has supported the industry with the measures drawn up in the 5th Community Action Plan for the Environment which tackles environmental policies stipulated in Article 130. Tourism was not mentioned in the VI Programme 2001-2010 Our future – Our choice which deals with the principle of integration of the Treaty, by which every aspect of European Union policy must take the Environment into consideration when making decisions.

The document states that: “We must endeavour to free the impact and damage to the environment from economic growth by, for example, vastly increasing eco-efficiency or by reducing the quantity of natural resources used to produce a given quantity of wealth or services. Consumption must become more

sustainable” (COM 2001/ 31).

Actions in favour of culture, contemplated in Art. 128 of the treaty, especially those in favour of our more significant heritage, are included in the “Culture 2000” programme which gives funding to the arts, entertainment and research into artistic crafts until 2005. The industry indirectly benefits from the annual designation of “European City of culture” which can be very influential in promoting the winning city’s image as a cultural destination. More and more measures are being implemented in a variety of EU policies and cultural programmes such as the European Sustainable Development strategy in the VI Environment Action Programme of the Cardiff Process of Integration and other industry strategies such as in the field of energy and transport

CONCLUSION

Then we get the conclusion, they are have different subject of the strategy of sustainable tourism development. Africa is more concern to developing their tourism and promoting it around the world. On the other side of this world Europe try to keep their success with educational tourism, eco-tourism and more concern to preserve the environtment.


REFERENCE
Paul K. Ankomah and R. Trent Larson. Education Tourism: A Strategy to Strategy to Sustainable
Tourism Development in Sub-Saharan Africa

PAPER ON FINANCIAL AND ECONOMIC PERSPECTIVES FOR SUSTAINABLE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT AT IIP 2ND AFRICAN CONFERENCE ON PEACE THROUGH TOURISM: “ COMMUNITY TOURISM – GATEWAY TO POVERTY REDUCTION”

Ernie Heath. Towards a model to enhance Africa’s sustainable Tourism Competitiveness. Department of Tourism Management University of Pretoria

Vittorio Gerosa. Pro-Poor Growth Strategies in Africa Expert Group Meeting Munyonyo Speke Resort Kampala, Uganda 23-24 June 2003 Tourism: A Viable Option for Pro-Poor Growth in Africa? Economic Commission for Africa Economic Policy Research Center

Dr Tekle Shanka. Tourism Strategies and Opportunities in Kenya and Ethiopia

Bill Slee. Reflections on the Prospects for Sustainable Tourism in Transition Economies: the Case
of the Ushanski National Park, Ukraine.

Adriana Galvani. The sustainable Tourism for the Europe of the third millennium

Podgorica and Zabljak. INTERNATIONAL TRAINING WORKSHOP on Sustainable Tourism Development in UNESCO Designated Sites in western Europe

Comparison between France and Switzerland in tourism’s policy

"Tourism in international Relation"
Lecturer : Drs. Usmar Salam MIS

Name : Antonius Galih S.
NIM : 06/196137/SP/21736
Subject : Tourism in International relation study’s perspective
Theme : Tourism policy based on Sustainable Tourism development concept
Title : Comparison between France and Switzerland in tourism’s policy based on Sustainable Tourism development Perspective

Comparison between France and Switzerland in tourism’s policy
(based on Sustainable Tourism development Perspective)

A.Sustainable Development and Sustainable Tourism development concept
Since eighteen’s decade, world started to realize the urgent of environmental issue. Some environmental issue got priority to handle by state and international organization. Such issues were followed: global warning, pollution, food security, deforestry, etc. As respond, UN (United Nation) released sustainable development concept that defined as "development that meets the needs of the present also consider for compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. Originally, the concept emphases on political and economic sector.
The issue got concern bigger and bigger and waded to tourism sector. The tourism development paradigm moved from a mass tourism concept towards to sustainable tourism development1 concept that consider on the importance of ecological and socio-cultural aspects in tourism development. Previously, mass tourism concept was mainly on economic orientation but the raising of nature destruction’s number, this concept wasn’t relevant with the condition anymore. World needed new concept that can cope two points in same time: tourism as economic activities but also as effort to keep environmental sustainability. Then arose the term “sustainable tourism development “. The World Tourism Organization defines sustainable tourism as “tourism which leads to management of all resources in such a way that economic, social and aesthetic needs can be filled while maintaining cultural integrity, essentials ecological processes, biological diversity and life support systems2. This concept generally involves four pillars of sustainability:
1.Economic sustainability : Profitable in short and long term
2.Ecological sustainability :Development that also concern on ecological, biological and nature resources sustainability
3.Cultural sustainability : Increase the control to community in order to show culture and values that sign social identity
4.Local sustainability : Design to give opportunity for local community raising their income.
Like I said before, sustainable tourism development is a respond from states and other international political actor to manage the environmental aspect as support living factor in human life as part from economic and political way. Then the question is how some states realize and imply this concept as their policy. This essay will try to descript and compare: how France and Switzerland imply the concept into their tourism policies. The problem is how can we decide that the policies put ecological consideration as important objection or not? To answer that question, author will use four pillars of sustainability that mention above to evaluate the policies. Also some indicators that can show goals of implementation of sustainable tourism development, they are as follows:
1. Sustainable tourism development provides the opportunity to take proactive approaches based on broad participation by stakeholders, which would contribute to more effective policies and plans. This would increase the opportunities to realize the full social and economic potential of the tourism industry.
2. Sustainable tourism development creates the opportunity for governments and all stakeholders in the tourism sector to aim at ensuring long-term prosperity and quality of life for future generations.
3. Sustainable tourism development also creates opportunities to preserve natural and cultural heritages for tourists and local people in ways that address development problems and reduce risks to the environment and ways of life

B.France and Switzerland policies on tourism
B.1 France

France is the most popular country for tourist as their destination. France noted as first rank3 for amount of tourist that visited this country. Since 2005 showed average of tourists spent in France for about 10,6 nights4. Tourism distributed income for about 10 billion Euro or 11,4 % from GDP. Data above indicates that France is successful in tourism sector but that data only note as economic aspect. Does France care to environment as part as their tourism business development? If Yes, What is the indicator, in this case how does France government adopt sustainable tourism development?
France was elected as one initiators state for program “The Marrakech Process on Sustainable Consumption and Production (SCP)” by The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and The UN Departement for Economic and Social Affairs (UNDESA) in 2002. Members of SCP have duty to support execution of sustainable tourism by development some factor and projection of blue print for other countries. Focuses of SCP are climate exchange, natural diversity, cultural and cultural heritance also local development.
France initiates some characters of tourism policies to support SCP such as: the use of enviromental resources, assist and preserve on natural resources, reservation for indigenouse culture, secure the native values in addition to focus on economic activities in short and long term that give social and economic advantages for all stakeholder. Some of the main projects under development include raising awareness of tourism and climate change, sustainable Coastal Tourism (Integrated Coastal Zone Management or ICZM), promoting natural and cultural heritage as assets for sustainable tourism development, a Communication Campaign on Sustainable Holidays, capacity building for the environmental management of small and medium enterprises in the accommodation sector and the launching of the Green Passport Campaign to raise awareness in the tourism community.\We can mention some programs: Integrated Coastal Zone Management atau ICZM, promoting natural and cultural legacy as tourism asset, campaign of indigenouse community, development of capacity for minor and middle business scope in tourism sector and launcing of Green Pasport to increase the consideration of green tourism destination.5 Those policy are regulated by France government especially: Department of Ecology and sustainable Development, Department of tourism and Department of foreign affair.

B.2 Switzerland

In Switzerland, Tourism distributes foreign income SF 11,4 billion in 1998 and put tourism as contributor for about 10% from total foreign income. This Country is famous with great natural scenery especially snow mountain. Beside that, there are unique culinary: cheese and chocolate that known by over the world. Switzerland also has good tourisms management system, it can be indicated by having hotel with high rank and complete also elegant tourism education. Some resorts are: Jenewa (historic and artistic city), Zurich (twin gothic towers: church Grossmunster and Fraumunster), Lugano (city with Italy culture and famous with night life), Lucerne (city with free car area), St. Moritz, Alpine (snow tourism), Monteux, Interlaken, and Berne
A basic tourism policy of Switzerland is documents namely conception suisse du tourisme1 in 1979 and more detail in Rapport sur la politique du tourisme de la Confederation, that signed May 29, 1996. Strategy of Switzerland’s tourism policy includes: (i) create contusive condition for tourism. (ii) support the market’s circle. (iii) Increase the interest to tourism destination. (iv) Research and development. (v) International cooperation. In Switzerland, These policies are handled by: Suisse Tourism (ST) or Switzerland tourism office, and Societe suisse de credit hotelier (SCH).
In Fact, Switzerland produces some tourism policies that indirectly adopt sustainable tourism development such as: Government conduct Zermat as city without fueled by gasoline vehicle so this city called no-vehicle city to create free pollution area. In old town like Jenewa, Government provides 1600 bicycles for tourist rounding this historic and artistic town. In other place, Zurich has special bicycles line.
In accommodations part such as hotels, Switzerland has implied system that friendly with environment: hotel moschberg use concept “united with nature” by using organic material as food and no smoking area in all part of the hotels.
About cultural reservation in tourism destination, Switzerland has Organization “ViaStoria” in Bern that promote tourism program called Cultural Routes of Switzerland6 to protect historic route and manage it as tourism asset. Cultural Routes of Switzerland uses method “slow travel”
(emphases on infrastructure development of walk’s route, improve the use of vehicle that run by renewable fuel and combine both of those two methods.

C. Analysis
Actually, France’s tourism policy can be transformed into this category:
1.Ecological Sustainability:
France provides alternative vehicles like taxi hybrid that more efficient in fuel consumption and bicycle (new mobility and ecological walks.)7. France also apply high standards for their resort like beaches, mountains and rural tourism such as obligation to use food organic in rural area and farm, procedure to manage garbage and rubbish, prohibition to use unfriendly ecological vehicle in some area, create a reservation for some creature, etc.
2.Cultural Sustainability:
France has bureaus to teach France for foreign tourists. By that course, foreign tourists will understand diversity of local culture. Government also has regulation about conservation some building that decided as cultural haritance8.
3. Economic sustainable
National government has a great attention to support local tourism industry such as government creates rural tourism that encourage participation of local community or farmers to animalize their asset and improve their income.
4.Local sustainability:
There are some areas9 that know as souvenirs center and controlled by local people. Beside that, every resort provide guide to assist tourist that usually come from local people. This guide also can be mentor for France language.
But in Switzerland, their policy can be categorized into such:
1.Ecological sustainability
Government has establish some policies that friendly with environment such development a bicycle track in some city, improve the use of renewable fuel, reduce the air pollution by deciding some areas as prohibited for vehicle and promote a system in order to optimalize nature potency (by using organic material as food and no smoking area in all part of the hotels)
2.Culture and local sustainability
Organization like “ViaStoria” indicates that Switzerland cares to sustainability of historic and artistic area. By this program, government tries to protect and secure the building, monument etc that has historic and cultural high values. The Government also supports the local culture development as tourism asset like Lugano, as tourists destination to recognize and enjoy the Italian culture in Switzerland. As information: Switzerland is influenced by three biggest cultures: Italia, German, France and Rumanian. And those culture lives harmonically. Even some towns use their unique culture to attract visitor/tourist.
3.Economic Sustainability
Switzerland is country with highest rank of welfare their people. And Tourism contributes 10 % from total foreign income. From those two data, it’s clearly that tourism has great influence for national development. Even, Those data say that, tourism only give income in formal sector but the state income from tourism is manage for welfare of the people. Rarely, informal sector handle this sector because people it’s self trust that state can handle this sector well and they have other formal job. Beside that, the welfare of people has secured by state well.

D. conclusion
It has proven that in both countries, Tourism has been a crucial sector for nation income. Historically each country set their tourism as a great bisnis. France and Switzerland has succeeded to optimilize their potency (nature and human recourses) as tourism asset. So those two countries are familiar with tourism. By consider this situation, they have to keep the sustainability their tourism resources. Along with the raise of environment issue, two countries realize that sustainable tourism development have to imply in their tourism policies. France even be a motivator for other countries applying this concept. In ecological side, this two approve that first step that must be taken to secure nature as their tourism asset is applying the system based on effort to counter global warming such as reduce the use of unrenewable resources like gasoline and transform into friendly fuel like organic fuel and bicycle, unpollition vehicle and adopt a system tourism management that more friendly with nature. This policies apply not only for secure the nature but also this system itself has been a interest commodity, as part from marketing tourism it self. So expect to keep the resources as long term asset, this system has supported and improved the interesting of tourism in those two countries. In logical way, keep and imply the renewable resources are more advantages in short and long term. In cultural sustainability, Franc and Switzerland develop different mechanism. Frank uses a single national identity but Switzerland based on their socio dynamic, they believe in plural community as their resource. Of course this mechanism will influence how the development of their local sustainability. Frank seems simpler, that allow the community to handle their own potency in tourism because it’s similar but in Switzerland, government need to create a special organization to handle this plural potency in order to justify the distribution. Switzerland also creates a social network to accommodate those plural potency in every region to keep the sustainability local culture as long as the diversity of the state, not incline to competition in economic sector.
I believe two states can be projection for other state to adopt sustainable tourism concept. They develop the concept not only for gain the economic profit but consider the social condition. They imply the policies on natural both human resources and do it promotionally based on four pillar: ecological, economic, cultural, and local potencies they have. I believe their policies will sustainable.